Why Did Emperor Qin Shi Huang Not Determine an Empress?

After unifying the six warring states, Emperor Qin Shi Huang established China's first centralized empire. He also created a new system: the emperor's principal wife would be called "empress," and his mother would be titled "empress dowager." Yet despite fathering more than thirty children, this founding emperor never named an empress during his lifetime. In fact, he was the only ruler throughout China's 2,000-year feudal history who never established an empress, which has added to his air of mystery. Based on available historical records, four main reasons likely explain his decision.
 

Qin Shi Huang's mother, Zhao Ji, came from humble origins. She was originally a singing girl in the household of Lü Buwei, a wealthy merchant, before being given to a prince who later became King Zhuangxiang of Qin. After the king died, Qin Shi Huang inherited the throne, and Zhao Ji became the dowager empress. But she did not behave as her position required. With Lü Buwei's help, she began a relationship with a man named Lao Ai, who pretended to be a eunuch to enter the palace. The relationship produced two sons, and Lao Ai reportedly went so far as to boast that he was the young emperor's "second father." 

For a boy who had ascended the throne as a child, this was devastating. When he came of age and took full power, Qin Shi Huang had Lao Ai executed, along with his two half-brothers. He banished his mother from the capital, Xianyang, and forced Lü Buwei to commit suicide. These experiences left him with deep scars. Though his palace held thousands of beautiful women from the conquered states, he viewed them more as trophies of war than as partners. He could not separate the women around him from the betrayal he had witnessed as a child, caused by his mother. In his eyes, none of them could be trusted with the position of empress.

Portrait of Emperor Qin Shi Huang

Two things consumed Qin Shi Huang during his reign: running his vast empire and searching for a way to live forever. He drove himself relentlessly as a ruler, setting a daily quota of reading approximately 30 kilograms (65 pounds) of official documents written on bamboo strips before he could rest each night. There was simply too much work to do. 

At the same time, he became obsessed with finding an elixir of immortality. During his several tours of the empire, he met with practitioners who claimed knowledge of eternal life on three separate occasions. He dispatched alchemists with ships full of young men and women to search for legendary islands where immortals were said to live. So intense was this pursuit that he even personally traveled to the seashore to watch for giant fish, which alchemists claimed blocked the path to the immortals. Between governing an empire and chasing eternal life, palace matters ranked low on his list. And so, naming an empress, a decision with lasting political implications, kept getting pushed aside and was eventually forgotten altogether.

Having united all of China under his rule, Qin Shi Huang considered his achievements greater than those of any ruler before him. He adopted the title "Huangdi," meaning "emperor," to reflect his exalted status. Such towering self-regard naturally shaped his expectations for an empress. In his mind, the woman who stood beside him would need more than beauty and proper conduct. She should possess the grace and political wisdom to match the greatest ruler in history. 

However, the women in his palace were mostly from the defeated states, princesses and concubines of rulers he had overthrown. In his eyes, none could embody the dignity and moral authority required of an empress. Rather than compromise his standards by naming an unworthy person, he left the position vacant.
 

The entire structure of Qin Shi Huang's government rested on one principle: all power was concentrated in the emperor's hands. He knew that an empress was never merely a spouse. She represented a network of relatives and allies who would inevitably seek influence and advantage. History offered plenty of warnings. From the Zhou dynasty (1046 - 256 BC) through the Warring States period (476 - 221 BC), numerous cases saw relatives of the empress interfere in government, sometimes seizing power for themselves. 

Qin Shi Huang had fought hard to unify China, so he might be unwilling to see his authority slowly eroded by a powerful clan bound by marriage. An empress might spark factional struggles, complicate the succession, and create centers of power beyond his control. The safest course was to avoid the risk entirely. By leaving the position vacant, he kept his power undivided and his authority absolute.